ISSUES RELATED TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Throughout much of this chapter we have concentrated on the technical detail of how data is transferred; in this section we are concerned with the sharing of information and knowledge. After all this is the central purpose of all communication systems. When communication is face-to-face one’s physical appearance, cultural background, gender and physical location are all on display. These factors greatly influence the communication that takes place. When communicating electronically such factors remain largely unknown. In cyberspace relationships can be built on common interests and needs. Information and knowledge is shared between people who may never physically meet. People who would not (or could not) normally communicate face-to-face can freely express and share their ideas and knowledge online. These people are free to converse without prejudice. However all is not perfect, this freedom can easily be abused by the unscrupulous. Electronic communication systems, and in particular the Internet, allow information to be shared quickly and relatively anonymously. The identity of the author can be hidden or obscured which makes it difficult for readers to verify the source and quality of the information. Unscrupulous persons are able to masquerade as trusted others in order to fraudulently obtain personal information such as credit card or banking details. Most people presume their email messages to be private; in reality network administrators and others with suitable access rights are able to view and monitor emails. Those in control of networks are able to restrict and monitor the activities of users. Such power relationships are often legitimate, however as is the case with all such relationships power can be abused. The Internet has removed national and international boundaries. We are free to communicate and trade internationally. Individual governments have little control over international trade and furthermore enforcing international laws is expensive and often ineffective in cyberspace. For example sending spam (mass electronic junk mail) is illegal within Australia; however Australian law has no control over spam sent from off shore locations. To cover all possible issues arising when using communication systems is clearly not possible. Rather in this section we describe general areas for further discussion and then outline some current and emerging trends in communication.
INTERNET FRAUD
Fraud is a criminal offence in virtually all countries; however Internet fraud when detected rarely results in a conviction. Fraud involves some kind of deception that includes false statements that intentionally aims to cause another person to suffer loss. Unfortunately fraudulent activity using the Internet is the most common form of e-crime. Examples of Internet fraud include:
•Some spam messages try to convince users to purchase goods at discount prices. Users then enter their banking or credit card details, which are later used to make fraudulent withdrawals or purchases. In most cases prices that are “too good to be true” probably are!
•Identity theft is a form of fraud where someone assumes the identity of someone else. Commonly the criminal obtains various personal details about the person so that they can convince organisations that they are that person. This enables the criminal to take out loans, purchase goods and withdraw money from the person’s bank accounts. Identity fraud even when discovered can have long term consequences as the person must restore their reputations with many different organisations.
•Phishing is a form of spam where the email contains a message that purports to be from a trusted source. One common phishing scam uses mass emails purporting to be from a particular organisation and asking recipients to update their details by clicking on a hyperlink. The hyperlink takes them to a site masquerading as the real organisation’s login screen. The fraudulent screen collects the user name and password and then forwards the user to the real site. Often users are unaware they are a victim of a scam as the criminals do not use the log in details for some time.
POWER AND CONTROL
Those who control access to information are placed in a position of power over the users whose access they control. Not only can access to information be restricted and censored but the activities of users can also be monitored. Often users do not understand the extent to which their online activities can be monitored. Some issues to consider include:
•Parents install Internet filtering software to restrict their children’s access to pornography and other inappropriate online information. Essentially parents are acting as censors for their children.
•Employers are able to monitor or even remotely watch and listen into their employee’s online sessions and telephone calls. From the employer’s perspective they are legitimately monitoring the quality of service provided. Many employees feel such systems imply a lack of trust and infringe upon their right to privacy.
•Email messages, unless securely encrypted, can be freely read by anyone with administrator rights to a mail server through which the messages pass. Many businesses claim they have a right to view messages sent and received on behalf of their company. However there are many cases where this has occurred without the knowledge of the employees.
•Backup copies of messages and web sites can and are stored for extended periods of time. Deleting a message from an email client or a file from a web server is not sufficient. Server archives have been used during investigations and have led to prosecutions.
•Organisations, including most schools, restrict and censor Internet access allowing only “approved” web sites and applications. In theory legitimate reasons exist and in most instances new sites and applications can be added to the approved list upon application. In practice many users find such controls oppressive and react with attempts to circumvent such restrictions.
REMOVAL OF PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
In cyberspace one’s physical location is of little or no relevance. Individuals and organisations can trade across the globe. This globalisation has many advantages. For instance virtual communities can be created without regard to geographical location. However, there are also legal implications in terms of criminal activity and also in terms of taxation law. Information can be obtained from international sources as easily as from local sources.
•It is difficult to determine the real nature and location of online businesses. Single person can setup a website that appears to represent a large corporation. Such businesses can be setup quickly and they can be dissolved just as quickly. The legal safeguards available in Australia are not present in many other countries. In general Australian law does not apply to international transactions.
•Virtual organisations and communities are created as needs arise. Some are based on common areas of interest, to collaborate on a particular project or to form relationships. Participants in such organisations are largely honest and genuine; however in many cases ethical behaviour cannot practically be enforced.
•Most people speak just one language. As a consequence we seldom communicate with those who speak a different language. This greatly restricts our ability to understand and empathise with other cultures despite the removal of physical boundaries.
INTERPERSONAL ISSUES
Electronic communication systems have changed the way many form relationships. Ideas delivered electronically can often appear less forceful and caring when compared to face-to-face communication. During face-to-face communication we continually receive and send non-verbal feedback to confirm understanding and to build relationships. Chat, teleconferencing and other real time communication systems are an attempt to address this issue, however non-verbal clues are not present, which can restrict one’s ability to form meaningful personal relationships.
•Online dating sites enable people to present a particular well thought out view of themselves; initial personal contact being made via email. On the surface people feel they have much in common – similar background, culture, job, etc. However when face-to-face meetings subsequently occur people often find there is little or no real attraction.
•Ideas and comments from amateur individuals can appear as legitimate as those from professionals and large trusted organisations. On the Internet uninformed individuals can make their views appear as forceful and influential as experts. Thesis difficult and rarely occurs with more traditional forms of communication.
GROUP TASK Discussion
Consider restrictions placed on Internet access at your school, work or home. Do these restrictions give power to those who administer and control Internet access? Discuss.
GROUP TASK Discussion
Identify particular examples of communication systems you have used that traverse international boundaries. Discuss issues you experienced during such communications.
•Text based messages delivered via email or chat can easily be misinterpreted. It takes time to receive feedback and even when received it lacks the body language, tone of voice and facial expressions present when communicating in person.
•All are equal when communicating electronically. We need not even be aware that we are communicating with someone with a disability. For example most people have difficulty communicating face-to-face with someone who has a profound hearing disability. On the Internet we may not be aware of such a disability.
WORK AND EMPLOYMENT ISSUES
Electronic communication systems have changed the way many people work and where they complete their work. For many jobs the ability to use electronic communication systems is required. Communication systems have provided the means for many people to work from home or from virtually any other location. They can vary their work hours and they can be contacted anywhere. This is certainly positive for employers and clients, however too often it has led to an expectation that employees are always available.
•Work teams can be setup where team members never or rarely physically meet. Rather they communicate and collaborate electronically using email, forums, teleconferencing and other electronic communication systems.
•Traditional employment is largely based on hours worked. When employees work from home they may well work unusual hours interspersed with other home and personal activities. This presents problems for employers who require reassurance that work is completed. It also presents problems for employees who must balance their intertwined work and personal lives.
•Most research indicates that those who work from home actually work longer hours and are more productive compared to those who travel to a specific work place. Some of the efficiency is due to the travel time saved, however the remainder is largely due to employees having more control and responsibility for the work they do.
•Many employees are provided with mobile phones and laptops that mean they are contactable in various ways 24 hours a day from almost any location. Today many expect to speak directly with people at any time of the day or at least that a response to messages will be made within an hour or so.
•Traditional retail stores are experiencing strong competition form online retailers. Potential customers often view goods in a physical store and then negotiate a better deal with an online retailer. Online retailers have significantly lower operating costs
Throughout much of this chapter we have concentrated on the technical detail of how data is transferred; in this section we are concerned with the sharing of information and knowledge. After all this is the central purpose of all communication systems. When communication is face-to-face one’s physical appearance, cultural background, gender and physical location are all on display. These factors greatly influence the communication that takes place. When communicating electronically such factors remain largely unknown. In cyberspace relationships can be built on common interests and needs. Information and knowledge is shared between people who may never physically meet. People who would not (or could not) normally communicate face-to-face can freely express and share their ideas and knowledge online. These people are free to converse without prejudice. However all is not perfect, this freedom can easily be abused by the unscrupulous. Electronic communication systems, and in particular the Internet, allow information to be shared quickly and relatively anonymously. The identity of the author can be hidden or obscured which makes it difficult for readers to verify the source and quality of the information. Unscrupulous persons are able to masquerade as trusted others in order to fraudulently obtain personal information such as credit card or banking details. Most people presume their email messages to be private; in reality network administrators and others with suitable access rights are able to view and monitor emails. Those in control of networks are able to restrict and monitor the activities of users. Such power relationships are often legitimate, however as is the case with all such relationships power can be abused. The Internet has removed national and international boundaries. We are free to communicate and trade internationally. Individual governments have little control over international trade and furthermore enforcing international laws is expensive and often ineffective in cyberspace. For example sending spam (mass electronic junk mail) is illegal within Australia; however Australian law has no control over spam sent from off shore locations. To cover all possible issues arising when using communication systems is clearly not possible. Rather in this section we describe general areas for further discussion and then outline some current and emerging trends in communication.
INTERNET FRAUD
Fraud is a criminal offence in virtually all countries; however Internet fraud when detected rarely results in a conviction. Fraud involves some kind of deception that includes false statements that intentionally aims to cause another person to suffer loss. Unfortunately fraudulent activity using the Internet is the most common form of e-crime. Examples of Internet fraud include:
•Some spam messages try to convince users to purchase goods at discount prices. Users then enter their banking or credit card details, which are later used to make fraudulent withdrawals or purchases. In most cases prices that are “too good to be true” probably are!
•Identity theft is a form of fraud where someone assumes the identity of someone else. Commonly the criminal obtains various personal details about the person so that they can convince organisations that they are that person. This enables the criminal to take out loans, purchase goods and withdraw money from the person’s bank accounts. Identity fraud even when discovered can have long term consequences as the person must restore their reputations with many different organisations.
•Phishing is a form of spam where the email contains a message that purports to be from a trusted source. One common phishing scam uses mass emails purporting to be from a particular organisation and asking recipients to update their details by clicking on a hyperlink. The hyperlink takes them to a site masquerading as the real organisation’s login screen. The fraudulent screen collects the user name and password and then forwards the user to the real site. Often users are unaware they are a victim of a scam as the criminals do not use the log in details for some time.
POWER AND CONTROL
Those who control access to information are placed in a position of power over the users whose access they control. Not only can access to information be restricted and censored but the activities of users can also be monitored. Often users do not understand the extent to which their online activities can be monitored. Some issues to consider include:
•Parents install Internet filtering software to restrict their children’s access to pornography and other inappropriate online information. Essentially parents are acting as censors for their children.
•Employers are able to monitor or even remotely watch and listen into their employee’s online sessions and telephone calls. From the employer’s perspective they are legitimately monitoring the quality of service provided. Many employees feel such systems imply a lack of trust and infringe upon their right to privacy.
•Email messages, unless securely encrypted, can be freely read by anyone with administrator rights to a mail server through which the messages pass. Many businesses claim they have a right to view messages sent and received on behalf of their company. However there are many cases where this has occurred without the knowledge of the employees.
•Backup copies of messages and web sites can and are stored for extended periods of time. Deleting a message from an email client or a file from a web server is not sufficient. Server archives have been used during investigations and have led to prosecutions.
•Organisations, including most schools, restrict and censor Internet access allowing only “approved” web sites and applications. In theory legitimate reasons exist and in most instances new sites and applications can be added to the approved list upon application. In practice many users find such controls oppressive and react with attempts to circumvent such restrictions.
REMOVAL OF PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
In cyberspace one’s physical location is of little or no relevance. Individuals and organisations can trade across the globe. This globalisation has many advantages. For instance virtual communities can be created without regard to geographical location. However, there are also legal implications in terms of criminal activity and also in terms of taxation law. Information can be obtained from international sources as easily as from local sources.
•It is difficult to determine the real nature and location of online businesses. Single person can setup a website that appears to represent a large corporation. Such businesses can be setup quickly and they can be dissolved just as quickly. The legal safeguards available in Australia are not present in many other countries. In general Australian law does not apply to international transactions.
•Virtual organisations and communities are created as needs arise. Some are based on common areas of interest, to collaborate on a particular project or to form relationships. Participants in such organisations are largely honest and genuine; however in many cases ethical behaviour cannot practically be enforced.
•Most people speak just one language. As a consequence we seldom communicate with those who speak a different language. This greatly restricts our ability to understand and empathise with other cultures despite the removal of physical boundaries.
INTERPERSONAL ISSUES
Electronic communication systems have changed the way many form relationships. Ideas delivered electronically can often appear less forceful and caring when compared to face-to-face communication. During face-to-face communication we continually receive and send non-verbal feedback to confirm understanding and to build relationships. Chat, teleconferencing and other real time communication systems are an attempt to address this issue, however non-verbal clues are not present, which can restrict one’s ability to form meaningful personal relationships.
•Online dating sites enable people to present a particular well thought out view of themselves; initial personal contact being made via email. On the surface people feel they have much in common – similar background, culture, job, etc. However when face-to-face meetings subsequently occur people often find there is little or no real attraction.
•Ideas and comments from amateur individuals can appear as legitimate as those from professionals and large trusted organisations. On the Internet uninformed individuals can make their views appear as forceful and influential as experts. Thesis difficult and rarely occurs with more traditional forms of communication.
GROUP TASK Discussion
Consider restrictions placed on Internet access at your school, work or home. Do these restrictions give power to those who administer and control Internet access? Discuss.
GROUP TASK Discussion
Identify particular examples of communication systems you have used that traverse international boundaries. Discuss issues you experienced during such communications.
•Text based messages delivered via email or chat can easily be misinterpreted. It takes time to receive feedback and even when received it lacks the body language, tone of voice and facial expressions present when communicating in person.
•All are equal when communicating electronically. We need not even be aware that we are communicating with someone with a disability. For example most people have difficulty communicating face-to-face with someone who has a profound hearing disability. On the Internet we may not be aware of such a disability.
WORK AND EMPLOYMENT ISSUES
Electronic communication systems have changed the way many people work and where they complete their work. For many jobs the ability to use electronic communication systems is required. Communication systems have provided the means for many people to work from home or from virtually any other location. They can vary their work hours and they can be contacted anywhere. This is certainly positive for employers and clients, however too often it has led to an expectation that employees are always available.
•Work teams can be setup where team members never or rarely physically meet. Rather they communicate and collaborate electronically using email, forums, teleconferencing and other electronic communication systems.
•Traditional employment is largely based on hours worked. When employees work from home they may well work unusual hours interspersed with other home and personal activities. This presents problems for employers who require reassurance that work is completed. It also presents problems for employees who must balance their intertwined work and personal lives.
•Most research indicates that those who work from home actually work longer hours and are more productive compared to those who travel to a specific work place. Some of the efficiency is due to the travel time saved, however the remainder is largely due to employees having more control and responsibility for the work they do.
•Many employees are provided with mobile phones and laptops that mean they are contactable in various ways 24 hours a day from almost any location. Today many expect to speak directly with people at any time of the day or at least that a response to messages will be made within an hour or so.
•Traditional retail stores are experiencing strong competition form online retailers. Potential customers often view goods in a physical store and then negotiate a better deal with an online retailer. Online retailers have significantly lower operating costs